War in Confucianism
Confucianism as political ethics has its roots in warfare. In 1046 BC, or thereabouts, one Jī Fā led a tribal coalition which defeated and overthrew the Shāng dynasty whose territory in northern China was about the same size as the modern states of France, Germany and Poland combined. The victor, better known to history as King Wŭ of Zhōu, became an archetype of the virtuous ruler, and was evoked as such by the early Confucian philosophers. The defeated Shāng king by contrast represents the evil tyrant who persecutes the people and deserves his fate. Addressing his followers before battle, Jī Fā makes what the texts describe as a ‘Great Vow’. Heaven, he says, loves the people and, having seen their sufferings, commands Jī Fā to remove the evil Shāng king:
“Heaven gave the ordinary people rulers and advisors in order to protect them. When they are united, they can follow the Ruler on High, in order that every part of the land is at peace. Now whether we are responsible or not, who are we to go against the Will of Heaven?” (The Book of Documents 27.4 tr Palmer et al)
From the Great Vow of the crusading Jī Fā, particularly in the works of Confucius, Mencius and Xúnzĭ, emerges the principle known as the Mandate of Heaven: rulers are legitimate only insofar as they govern with humaneness; carrying out their duties to the people by non-coercive means. If they fail to so rule they may be overthrown; in particular, the legitimate king, who possess the Mandate of Heaven, may conduct ‘punitive expeditions’ in order to punish inhumane subordinate rulers. The Book of Documents tells us that King Wŭ, following the defeat of Shāng, found it necessary to put down rebellions in the east in order to bring peace to the people.
From these historical exemplars, the Confucian philosophers developed a distinctive view of what constitutes a just war. At the core of the Confucian view is a greater concern for the welfare of all people ‘under Heaven’, than for the rights of rulers to act as they please within their own territory.
1. States are justified by their humane rule
Following his victory, Zhōu King Wŭ sought advice from the worthy viscount of Qí who disclosed details of Heaven’s Great Plan for rulers:
“Perfect princely rule occurs when the prince seeks perfection in his bestowing the Five Good Fortunes [long life, prosperity, peace and well-being, love of virtue, and a good end to life], sharing these with all the people. In return the people will become defenders of this and will trust the prince. The people will therefore never plot or the statesman be so self-centred as would otherwise be the case and the ruler will achieve his highest ambitions and status.” (Book of Documents 32.7 tr Palmer et. al)
The function of government is to maximise not state prosperity or power but the people’s …
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