Throughout the past century, technology’s integration into the human body has redefined our understanding of identity, autonomy, and what it means to be human. This essay explores three fundamental paradigm shifts that highlight how technological advancements have altered society’s aesthetic perception of the body. Art plays a critical role in imagining and normalizing these transformations, influencing how these changes are perceived before they fully permeate mainstream thought. The following analysis delves into these paradigm shifts and the ethical dilemmas they present, focusing on their implications for human identity and agency.
In the early 20th century, technology began to play a significant role in restoring human function through prosthetics, marking the first shift from restoration to enhancement. Initially, prosthetics were designed to restore basic functions for those who had lost limbs, especially following World War I. Veterans returned with amputations, and prosthetic limbs became essential for regaining functionality. These devices were not only about mimicking lost limbs but often about providing enhanced functions and helping veterans reintegrate into the workforce.
At the same time, avant-garde artists, particularly the Dadaists, began exploring the aesthetic and philosophical implications of human-technology integration. Raoul Hausmann, Hannah Höch and George Grosz saw the fusion of the human body with machines as a radical way to rethink the human form and identity. Through their iconic collages, they depicted robotic limbs and mechanical enhancements that prefigured the idea of the cyborg. Although the term “cyborg” had not yet been coined, these artists laid the foundation for what would later be called the cyborg aesthetic.
The Dadaists viewed the human body as a malleable construct capable of transformation through mechanical components. Their work sparked conversations about how technology could redefine the body, marking a cultural acceptance of the cyborg figure, as Matthew Biro argues in his book The Dada Cyborg. This acceptance would later become central to science fiction and discussions about the future of humanity. This transformation was deeply unsettling for some artists, such as Otto Dix and George Grosz. Their works often critiqued the dehumanization brought about by technological interventions in the body. This reality became starkly visible in the aftermath of World War I when countless soldiers returned home with prosthetic limbs. These artists saw incorporating technology into the human form as emblematic of the alienation and fragmentation imposed by modern, mechanized warfare.
However, Dadaist artists such as Hannah Höch and Raoul Hausmann took a different path. Rather than focusing on critique, their works explored entirely new ways of living the body and being human. For them, technology was a realm of possibility. Hausmann’s Mechanical Head (The Spirit of Our Age), (1919), a piece combining human features with machine parts, exemplifies this shift. It symbolizes a fascination with the potential of technology to transform the human body, transcending its biological limitations. Similarly, Höch’s collages fragmented and reassembled the human form, embracing the creative possibilities of technological and mechanical advancements. This aesthetic approach departed from traditional views of the body, laying the groundwork for later debates on transhumanism and posthumanism. The Dadaist embrace of cyborg aesthetics suggests a “plus value” beyond practicality, envisioning enhancement not merely as recovering lost functions but as a space for new aesthetic possibilities. Their work anticipated a future where technology might redefine what it means to be human, opening up both imaginative and philosophical explorations of enhancement as liberation rather than constraint.
The first paradigm shift thus went beyond practical concerns of restoring lost limbs. However, this exploration also highlighted the ambivalence of technological ‘enhancement.’ While prosthetics and mechanical additions addressed immediate functional needs, they also introduced an aesthetic and symbolic “plus value” beyond mere utility. For the Dadaists, this practical and conceptual duality posed critical questions about what it means to enhance the body. The works of Höch and Hausmann envisioned technological integration not just as a response to physical loss but as an opportunity to reimagine the human form and expand its potential radically. Their exploration transcended the recovery of lost functions, venturing into a realm where enhancement was tied to aesthetic transformation and liberation from biological constraints. By doing so, they were among the first to imagine how technology might augment the human body in provocative and deeply attractive ways, laying the groundwork for cultural fascination with the cyborg figure that continues to this day.
The second major shift in human-technology integration took place as the focus moved from enhancement to transcendence. After World War II, transhumanism emerged, advocating for the use of technology to enhance human functions and transcend the biological limits of the human species. To understand this shift, it is important to consider language modification and its implications. Scientists like Julian Huxley, who coined the term “transhumanism,” reframed earlier concepts such as eugenics to focus on the potential for humans to evolve beyond their natural constraints through technological augmentation. Unlike earlier paradigms, where technology was primarily seen as compensatory, transhumanism introduces the idea of enhancement as a pathway to transcendence. This evolution raises profound philosophical and ethical questions: Is this transformation a universal aspiration, or does it apply only to those whose bodies or circumstances allow such integration with technology? Furthermore, does the enhancement concept carry an implicit moral imperative, or is it merely an individual choice? These debates will be crucial for understanding the shifting perceptions of the application of technology to the body in the following section.
From the transhumanist perspective, human beings are defined more by their limitations than their capacities. Aging, disease, emotional instability, and mortality are seen as challenges that technology can and should overcome. Transhumanist thinkers like Ray Kurzweil or Aubrey de Grey argue that advancements in biotechnology, artificial intelligence, and nanotechnology could eventually allow humans to transcend these limitations, extending life spans and enhancing physical and cognitive abilities. Posthumanism, closely related to transhumanism, takes this idea even further, suggesting that human beings could evolve into a species unrecognizable as “human.” For posthumanist thinkers like Donna Haraway, Rosi Braidotti and Francesca Ferrando, the fusion of human biology and technology can dismantle traditional notions of identity, gender, and species. Haraway’s Cyborg Manifesto argued that cyborgs—a hybrid of machine and organism—could break down binary distinctions like male/female and human/animal.
In this context, technology is not merely a tool for improving human life; it is a means of liberation, freeing individuals from the constraints of biology. The posthuman body becomes a malleable entity, capable of being altered, augmented, or even abandoned altogether. This shift from enhancement to transcendence raises profound ethical questions about what it means to be human and how far technology should intervene in our natural state.
Artists, too, have engaged with these ideas, using their work to explore the ethical and philosophical dilemmas of body modification. Stelarc, for instance, is renowned for his performances incorporating cybernetic elements and robotic prosthetics into his body. His work challenges the traditional notion of the human form as fixed and inviolable, suggesting that the body is not only malleable but also increasingly obsolete in its biological state. Through projects like the Third Hand or Ear on Arm, Stelarc raises profound questions about agency, identity, and the human body’s future, becoming an interface for technological evolution. Similarly, Orlan’s groundbreaking performances, such as The Reincarnation of Saint Orlan, directly confront societal norms about beauty, identity, and the limits of bodily transformation. By undergoing plastic surgeries that reconfigure her face to emulate features from classical art, Orlan interrogates the aesthetic and ethical boundaries of body modification. Her work questions the commodification of the body and the cultural constructs that define what it means to be human. By deliberately blending organic and artificial elements, Orlan challenges viewers to consider whether such transformations represent liberation or a deeper entrenchment in societal ideals. Together, Stelarc and Orlan push the boundaries of being human freely. They do not have any disability, just the possibility to transform their bodies through technology. Their performances exemplify the intersection of art and posthumanist thought, forcing us to confront the philosophical and ethical implications of a future where the body is no longer a natural given but a technological canvas.
At the same time, as transhumanism and posthumanism gained traction, they sparked heated debates within philosophy and ethics. Critics like Francis Fukuyama and Jürgen Habermas argue that transhumanism threatens the integrity of human identity, blurring the line between the natural and the artificial. They contend that the widespread use of enhancement technologies could lead to a loss of human dignity, as people become more like machines, disconnected from their biological roots. There are also concerns about inequality, as access to enhancement technologies may be limited to the wealthy. Proponents like Nick Bostrom argue that enhancing human beings is not only morally permissible but morally obligatory. By allowing individuals to live longer, healthier, and more fulfilling lives, technology can help humanity evolve beyond its natural limitations. Bostrom suggests that embracing enhancement technologies aligns with humanistic values, promoting well-being and the flourishing of individuals. He contends that—with appropriate ethical guidelines and equitable access—these advancements can lead to a more just and prosperous society.
In recent years, we have witnessed the cultivation of what could be described as a “cyborg ideal” within society. Can we say we face a third shift in human-technology integration? Some authors have used the term cyborgization to describe the normalization of technology integration into human bodies and society. For instance, Paolo Benanti discusses cyborgization as the social use of technologies to change how we think, act, and live, preparing society to accept machine-based human capabilities and enhancements. Technologies such as fitness trackers, smartwatches, and implantable medical devices, while still external to the body, are increasingly perceived as extensions of it and are likely to become fully incorporated into the body in the near future. While the complete integration of humans and machines is still in its early stages, the technology industry is undeniably moving in that direction. At the beginning of the 20th century, nobody could have imagined people voluntarily transforming their bodies without medical necessity, yet today, such practices are widely accepted. Could these advancements mark a significant cultural shift toward a “cyborg society”? Philosophers like Peter Singer and Nick Bostrom have explored the potential benefits of cyborgization, particularly in relation to human enhancement. However, they recognize the ethical dilemmas these technologies present. Who owns the data generated by these devices? How do we ensure that cyborg enhancements are available to all rather than just the privileged few? And how do we protect individual rights and privacy in a world where the line between digital and biological is increasingly blurred?
As these technologies become more integrated, the boundary between biological and technological continues to dissolve. Artists like Neil Harbisson and Moon Ribas have pushed this integration to new extremes, considering themselves cyborgs and pioneering a new movement: cyborg art. Harbisson, born with achromatopsia, has a sensor implanted in his skull that allows him to “hear” colors, including ultraviolet and infrared. Ribas, meanwhile, has embedded seismic sensors in her feet that allow her to feel earthquakes in real time. For both artists, technology is not simply a tool but an extension of their sensory perception and identity. Yet what makes their work particularly significant is its uncritical embrace of technological integration. Like traditional art movements that sought to critique or resist technological advancements, cyborg art actively celebrates and promotes the merging of humans and machines. Harbisson and Ribas have even founded an organization to encourage and facilitate the transition to becoming cyborgs, advocating for a future where such enhancements are not just possible but desirable. While their practices may still seem eccentric to mainstream society, they are already contributing to a shift in how we imagine the human body and its potential.
In this sense, their work may parallel the role of Dadaist artists a century ago, who disrupted conventional aesthetics and challenged societal norms, ultimately reshaping cultural imaginaries. Similarly, cyborg art could lay the groundwork for a new bodily aesthetic where technological augmentation is normalized and celebrated. By embodying these possibilities, cyborg artists are not merely experimenting with their own identities; they are actively shaping a collective imaginary, fostering a vision of humanity that is increasingly defined by its technological hybridity. By radically transforming their bodies and advocating for others to follow, they push society to confront the philosophical and ethical implications of merging humans and machines.
Philosophy plays a crucial role here, complementing art by offering frameworks to grapple with these questions. Thinkers like Bernard Stiegler, who warns of the dangers of uncritical technological adoption, remind us that integrating technology into human life is not neutral. It reflects and shapes power dynamics, values, and future visions. As the boundaries between humans and machines dissolve, we must ensure that this transformation is guided by a deep understanding of its implications for individuals and humanity.
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